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Schmitt wrote extensively about the effective wielding of political power. A conservative [4] [5] theorist, he is noted as a critic of parliamentary democracy, liberalism, and cosmopolitanism, [6] and his work has been a major influence on subsequent political theory, legal theory, continental philosophy, and political theologybut its value and significance are controversial, mainly due to his intellectual support for and active involvement with Nazism.
Schmitt's work has attracted the attention of numerous philosophers and political theorists, including Giorgio AgambenHannah ArendtWalter BenjaminSusan Buck-MorssJacques DerridaJürgen HabermasWaldemar GurianJaime GuzmánReinhart KoselleckFriedrich Hayek[7] Chantal MouffeAntonio NegriLeo StraussAdrian Vermeule[8] and Slavoj Žižekamong others. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"Schmitt was an acute observer and analyst carl skinner dissertation year round school the weaknesses of liberal constitutionalism and liberal cosmopolitanism.
But there can be little doubt that his preferred cure turned out to be infinitely worse than the disease. Schmitt was carl skinner dissertation year round school in PlettenbergWestphaliaGerman Empire.
His parents were Roman Catholics from the German Eifel region who had settled in Plettenberg. His father was a minor businessman. He studied law at BerlinMunich and Strasbourg and took his graduation and state examinations in then-German Strasbourg during Schmitt volunteered for the army in He then taught at various business schools and universities, namely the University of Greifswaldthe University of Bonnthe Technische Universität Münchenthe University of Colognecarl skinner dissertation year round school, and the University of Berlin — InSchmitt married his first wife, Pavla [note 1] Dorotić, [12] a Serbian woman who pretended to be a countess.
They were divorced, carl skinner dissertation year round school, though an appeal to the Catholic Church carl skinner dissertation year round school an annulment was rejected. In he married his second wife, Duška Todorović —also Serbian; they had a daughter, Anima.
Schmitt was excommunicated because his first marriage had not been annulled. She translated several of her father's works into Spanish. Letters from Schmitt to his son-in-law have carl skinner dissertation year round school been published. Schmitt died on 7 April and is buried in Plettenberg. As a young man, Schmitt was "a devoted Catholic until his break with the church in the mid twenties. Rather, Schmitt should be understood as carrying an atheistic political-theological tradition to an extreme.
Schmitt met Mircea Eliadea Romanian religion historian, in Berlin in the summer of and later spoke to his friend Ernst Carl skinner dissertation year round school of Eliade and his interest in Eliade's works. Schmitt remarked on 31 January that with Adolf Hitler 's appointment as Chancellor, "one can say that ' Hegel died.
it is Hegel qua philosopher of the "bureaucratic class" or Beamtenstaat that has been definitely surpassed with Hitler's triumph this class of civil servants—which Carl skinner dissertation year round school in the Rechtsphilosophie deems the "universal class"—represents an impermissible drag on the sovereignty of executive authority.
For Schmitt the very essence of the bureaucratic conduct of business is reverence for the norm, a standpoint that could not but exist in great tension with the doctrines of Carl Schmitt Hegel had set an ignominious precedent by according this putative universal class a position of preeminence in his political thought, insofar as the primacy of the bureaucracy tends to diminish or supplant the prerogative of sovereign authority.
The Nazis forced through the passage of the Enabling Act of in March, which changed the Weimar Constitution to allow the "present government" to rule by decree, bypassing both the President, Paul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag. Alfred Hugenbergthe leader of the German National People's Partyone of the Nazis' partners in the coalition government that was being squeezed out of existence, hoped to slow the Nazi takeover of the country by threatening to quit his ministry position in the Cabinet.
Hugenberg reasoned that by doing so, the government would thereby be changed, and the Enabling Act would no longer apply, as the "present government" would no longer exist. A legal opinion by Schmitt prevented this maneuver from succeeding. At the time well known as a constitutional theorist, Schmitt declared that "present government" did not refer to the Cabinet's makeup when the act was passed, but to the "completely different kind of government"—that is, different from the democracy of the Weimar Republic —that Hitler's cabinet had brought into existence.
DuringSchmitt became a professor at the University of Greifswaldwhere he published his essay Die Diktatur on dictatorship. In he published Politische Theologie political carl skinner dissertation year round school while working carl skinner dissertation year round school a professor at the University of Bonn. Schmitt changed universities inwhen he became professor of law at the Handelshochschule in Berlinand again inwhen he accepted a position in Cologne.
His most famous paper, " Der Begriff des Politischen " " The Concept of the Political " was based on lectures at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Berlin. InSchmitt was counsel for the Reich government in the case " Preussen contra Reich " "Prussia v. Reich"in which the Social Democratic Party of Germany -controlled government of the state of Prussia disputed its dismissal by the right-wing Reich government of Franz von Papen. Papen was motivated to do so because Prussia, by far the largest state in Germanyserved as a powerful base for the political left and provided it with institutional power, particularly in the form of the Prussian police.
Schmitt, Carl Bilfinger and Erwin Jacobi represented the Reich [20] and one of the counsel for the Prussian government was Hermann Heller. The court ruled in October that the Prussian government had been suspended unlawfully but that the Reich had the right to install a commissar. Schmitt joined the Nazi Party on 1 May He also replaced Heller as a professor at the University of Berlin[23] a position he held until the end of World War II. He presented his theories as an ideological foundation of the Nazi dictatorship and a justification of the Führer state concerning legal philosophy, particularly through the concept of auctoritas.
In JuneSchmitt was appointed editor-in-chief of the Nazi newspaper for lawyers, the Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung "German Jurists' Journal". Nevertheless, in Decemberthe Schutzstaffel SS publication Das schwarze Korps accused Schmitt of being an opportunist, a Hegelian state thinker, and a Catholic, carl skinner dissertation year round school, and called his anti-semitism a mere pretense, citing earlier statements in which he criticized the Nazis' racial theories.
Schmitt continued to be investigated intobut Göring stopped further reprisals. During the German occupation of Paris a "round-table" of French and German intellectuals met at the Georges V Hotelincluding Schmitt, the writers Ernst JungerPaul MorandJean Cocteauand Henry Millon de Montherlantand the publisher Gaston Gallimard. InAmerican forces captured Schmitt and, after spending more than a year in an internment camp, he returned to his home town of Plettenberg carl skinner dissertation year round school later to the house of his housekeeper Anni Stand in Plettenberg-Pasel.
He remained unrepentant for his role in the creation of the Nazi state, and refused every attempt at de-nazificationwhich barred him from academic jobs.
Important among these visitors were Ernst JüngerJacob Taubes and Alexandre Kojève. InSchmitt gave lectures in Francoist Spaintwo of which resulted in the publication, the next year, of Theory of the Partisanin which he characterized the Spanish Civil War as a "war of national liberation" against "international Communism".
Schmitt regarded the partisan as a specific and significant phenomenon which, during the latter half of the 20th century, indicated the emergence of a new theory of warfare. In his essay Die Diktatur on dictatorship he discussed the foundations of the newly established Weimar Republicemphasising the office of the Reichspräsident. In this essay, Schmitt compared and contrasted what he saw as the effective and ineffective elements of the new constitution of his country.
He saw the office of the president as a comparatively effective element, because of the power granted to the president to declare a state of exception Ausnahmezustand.
This power, which Schmitt discussed and implicitly praised as dictatorial, [25] was more in line with the underlying mentality of executive power than the comparatively slow and ineffective processes of legislative power reached through parliamentary discussion and compromise, carl skinner dissertation year round school.
Schmitt was at pains to remove what he saw as a taboo surrounding the concept of "dictatorship" and to show that the concept is implicit whenever power carl skinner dissertation year round school wielded by means other than the slow processes of parliamentary politics and the bureaucracy:.
If the constitution of a state is democratic, then every exceptional negation of democratic principles, every exercise of state power independent of the approval of the majority, can be called dictatorship. For Schmitt, every government capable of decisive action must include a dictatorial element within its constitution.
Although the German concept of Ausnahmezustand is best translated as "state of emergency", it literally means " state of exception " which, according to Schmitt, frees the executive from any legal restraints to its power that would normally apply. The use of the term "exceptional" has to be underlined here: Schmitt defines sovereignty as the power to decide to initiate a state of exceptionas Giorgio Agamben has noted. According to Agamben, [35] Schmitt's conceptualization of the "state of exception" as belonging to the core-concept of sovereignty was a response to Walter Benjamin 's concept of a "pure" or "revolutionary" violence, which did not enter into any relationship whatsoever with right.
Through the state of exception, Schmitt included all types of violence under right, in the case of the authority of Hitler leading to the formulation "The leader defends the law" " Der Führer schützt das Recht ". Schmitt opposed what he termed "commissarial dictatorship", or the declaration of a state of emergency in order to save the legal order a temporary suspension of law, defined itself by moral or legal right : the state of emergency is limited even if a posterioriby law to "sovereign dictatorship", in which law was suspended, as in the classical state of exception, not to "save the Constitution ", but rather to create another constitution.
This is how he theorized Hitler 's continual suspension of the legal constitutional order during the Third Reich the Weimar Republic 's Constitution was never abrogated, emphasized Giorgio Agamben; [36] rather, it was "suspended" for four years, first with the 28 February Reichstag Fire Decreewith the suspension renewed every four years, implying a continual state of emergency.
On Dictatorship was followed by another essay intitled Politische Theologie political theology ; in it, Schmitt, gave further substance to his authoritarian theories with the now notorious definition: "Sovereign is he who decides on the exception. Schmitt opposes this definition to those offered by contemporary theorists of sovereignty, particularly Hans Kelsenwhose work is criticized at several points in the essay.
The state of exception is a critique of "normativism", a positivist concept of law developed by Kelsen of law as the expression of norms that are abstract and generally applicable, in all circumstances. A year later, Schmitt supported the emergence of totalitarian power structures in his paper " Die geistesgeschichtliche Lage des heutigen Parlamentarismus " roughly: "The Intellectual-Historical Situation of Today's Parliamentarianism ", translated as The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy by Ellen Kennedy.
Schmitt criticized the institutional practices of liberal politics, arguing that they are justified by a faith in rational discussion and openness that is at odds with actual parliamentary party politicsin which outcomes are hammered out in smoke-filled rooms by party leaders, carl skinner dissertation year round school.
Schmitt also posits an essential division between the liberal doctrine of separation of powers and what he holds to be the nature of democracy itself, carl skinner dissertation year round school, the identity of the rulers and the ruled. Although many critics of Schmitt today, such as Stephen Holmes in his The Anatomy of Anti-Liberalismtake exception to his fundamentally authoritarian outlook, the idea of incompatibility between liberalism and democracy is one reason for the continued interest in his political philosophy.
In chapter 4 of his State of ExceptionItalian philosopher Giorgio Agamben argued that Schmitt's Political Theology ought to be read as a response to Walter Benjamin 's influential essay Towards the Critique of Violence. The book's title derives from Schmitt's assertion in chapter 3 that "all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts"—in other words, that political theory addresses the state and sovereignty in much the same manner as theology does God.
For Schmitt, "the political" is not equal to any other domain, such as the economic which distinguishes between profitable and not profitablebut instead is the most essential to identity. While churches are predominant in religion or society is predominant in economics, the state is usually predominant in politics, carl skinner dissertation year round school. Yet, for Schmitt, the political was not autonomous or equivalent to the other domains, but rather the existential basis that would determine any other domain should it reach the point of politics e.
religion ceases to be merely theological when it makes a clear distinction between the "friend" and the "enemy". Schmitt, in perhaps his best-known formulation, bases his conceptual realm of state sovereignty and autonomy upon the distinction between friend and enemy. Schmitt writes:. The political enemy need not be morally evil or aesthetically ugly But he is, nevertheless, the other, the stranger…" [39].
This distinction is to be determined "existentially", which is to say that the enemy is whoever is "in a specially intense way, existentially something different and alien, so that in the extreme case conflicts with him are possible.
The collectivization of friendship and enmity is, for Schmitt, carl skinner dissertation year round school, the essence of politics. This theory of politics was influential in the Third Reich where the recognition and eradication of the enemy became a necessary component of the collective national identity. Similar views were shared by other Nazi legal theorists like Werner Best.
Additionally, the prominence of the state stands as an arbitrary force dominating potentially fractious civil society, whose various antagonisms must not be allowed to affect politics, lest civil war result.
Schmitt provided a positive reference for Leo Straussand approved his work, which was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany. Writing to Schmitt duringStrauss summarized Schmitt's political theology thus: "[B]ecause man is by nature evil, he therefore needs dominion. But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified carl skinner dissertation year round school in a unity against—against other men.
Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state. The Nomos of the Earth is Schmitt's most historical and geopolitical work.
Published init was also one of his final texts. It describes the origin of the Eurocentric global order, which Schmitt dates from the discovery of the New Worlddiscusses its specific carl skinner dissertation year round school and its contribution to civilization, analyses the reasons for its decline at the end of the 19th century, and concludes with prospects for a new world order.
It defends European achievements, not only in creating the first truly global order of international lawbut also in limiting war to conflicts among sovereign states, which, in effect, civilized war. In Schmitt's view, the European sovereign state was the greatest achievement of Occidental rationalism; in becoming the principal agency of secularization, the European state created the modern age. Notable in Schmitt's discussion of the European epoch of world history is the role played by the New Worldwhich ultimately replaced the Old World as the centre of the Earth and became the arbiter in European and world politics.
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An admission essay is an essay or other written statement by a candidate, often a potential student enrolling in a college, university, or graduate school. You can be rest assurred that through our service we will write the best admission essay for you We can handle your term paper, dissertation, a research proposal, or an essay on any topic. We are aware of all the challenges faced by students when tackling class assignments. You can have an assignment that is too complicated or an assignment that needs to Carl Linnaeus (/ l ɪ ˈ n iː ə s, l ɪ ˈ n eɪ ə s /; 23 May – 10 January ), also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈkɑːɭ fɔn lɪˈneː] ()), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming blogger.com is known as the "father of modern taxonomy"
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